CHAPTER 18
THE ECONOMY AND WORK
The economic system refers to the social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed and consumed.
The Economic system just like other social institutions such as family, religion, education, and government affects the social order and influence them.
TYPES OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
There are two basic types of Economic Systems.
1. Capitalism: This is an economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands and mainly for accumulation of profit. That is, the economy is controlled by private individuals.
In a capitalist system of Government, the government is often regarded as laissez-faire (the government let them do what they want).
Capitalism encourages monopoly. Monopoly is the situation where there is only a single business firm in the market. Monopoly allows an industry to dominate and take effective control of commodity by dictating the prices, standards of quality and availability.
Examples of capitalism can be found in countries like USA, UK, Australia, Canada and other parts of Western Europe.
2. Socialism: This is an economic system in which means of production and distribution in a society is collectively owned rather than privately. The basic objective of this economic system is to meet the people’s needs rather than to maximize profits.
Socialist rejects laissez faire philosophy and encourages free competition which benefits the general public.
Socialism is often linked with communism in which all property is communally owned.
Socialism encourages Oligopoly in which there are few suppliers to a product and one supplier’s action can have significant impact on the prices and on its competitors.
Socialism or communism is common in countries like Russia, China, Vietnam, Cuba and Eastern Europe.
ASPECTS OF WORK
Occupations and Professions.
Occupation is whatever we do for pay. It could be a job, work, gig, stint, position, duty or vacation.
Occupation influences our social behavior in a number of ways. As part of the socialization process, people prepare for work. Our occupation also determines our position (status) in the society.
Profession refers to an occupation which requires extensive knowledge that is governed by code of ethics. Professionals have great deal of autonomy. They are responsible for their actions under least supervision.
It is widely agreed that Medicine and Law are professions whereas driving a taxi is an occupation.
WORK AND ALIENATION
The term alienation refers to the situation of being estranged or disassociated from the surrounding society.
The powerlessness of workers in a capitalist economic system often leads to alienation. The development of technology has also resulted to workers lack of fulfillment in performing their jobs.
Workers no longer have control over their occupational tasks, the products of their labor or the distribution of profits.
The solution to alienation is to give workers greater control over the workplace and the products of their labor.
WORKER SATISFACTION
Factors that Affect Job satisfaction:
1. Higher wages and remunerations
2. Working Hours and conditions
3. Responsibilities
4. Relationship with Superiors and Co-workers
5. Prestige of the work place
6. Job Security
THE CHANGING ECONOMY
The nature of the global economy is changing because nation’s economy is intertwined with and dependent on each other. We can examine the economy in the following ways.
a. The changing face of the workforce
b. Deindustrialization
c. Emergence of E-commerce
d. Rise of Contingency workforce.
a. The changing face of the workforce
In the past, men dominate the workforce. But since after the world war, more women have entered the workforce. Nowadays, there are numerous job opportunities open to women and minorities. The workforce more and more reflects the diversity of the population as ethnic minorities enter the labor force and immigrants and their children move on to position of greater responsibilities.
A more diverse workforce means that relationships between workers are more likely to cross gender, racial and ethnic lines.
b. Deindustrialization:
This refers to the systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in basic aspect of productivity such as factories and plants.
Deindustrialization is often as a result of Recession (decline in economic activities). Due to this decline in economic activities, factories, or Giant Corporation may decide to relocate their investment, or need to decrease their labor.
Deindustrialization is usually done step by step. First, there may be a relocation of plants or factories from the city to suburbs. Next, they may relocate from suburb to other provinces and finally they may decide to relocate outside the country.
An important feature of deindustrialization is downsizing. Downsizing refers to the reduction of a company’s workforce.
c. E-commerce.
E-commerce refers to the different ways that people use the internet to do business from their computer. The emergence of E-commerce has changed the global economy. Nowadays, people can do their shopping, buy flight tickets, and make hotel reservation and other businesses online.
Websites such as www.amazon.com, www.alibbaba.com www.ebay.com, are examples of sites used for e-commerce.
You can also do money transfers and other banking services on the internet using E-banking.
Advantages of E-commerce
a. It saves time and energy
b. It by-passes the retail trade or traditional retail outlets.
c. It provides more opportunities to consumers in rural areas and disabilities assuming they have the necessary high tech infrastructures.
Disadvantage of E-commerce
a. It encourages social isolation and alienation
b. It disconnects the poor and disadvantaged who cannot use this technology.
c. It is also open to fraud and cyber crimes
d. The contingency workforce
Nowadays, there is an increase of temporary or short time workers as against permanent or long time employment. Contingency workforce is used to describe workers who are hired only for as long as they are needed.
Many unemployed workers and new workers accept temporary positions or part-time jobs for flexibility and control over their work time. Others do so because they cannot find other jobs. Examples of contingency workforce include freelancers who work from home through the internet. Another example is that of contract workers who are rented or hired for specific period of time.
Thursday, June 25, 2009
HEALTH AND MEDICINE
Culture and Health.
Culture influences the differences in medical care as well as how health is defined. For example, in African culture, the fat and plump person is viewed as wealthy and good looking and slim person is considered sick and lack of food. But in Western or Asian culture, a slim person is typically viewed as youthful, healthy and beautiful whereas, a fat person is viewed as ugly and lacking in self-discipline.
Culture can also influence the relative incidence of a disease or disorder. Some diseases are connected to the meanings of particular cultures. The term culture-bound syndrome refers to a disease or illness that cannot be understood apart from its specific social context.
Sociological Perspective on health and illness.
World health Organization defined health as a “state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.
People define themselves as “healthy” or “sick” depending on the criteria established by individual, relatives, friends, co-workers and medical practitioners.
Health is relative therefore, it can be viewed in a social context and it varies in different situations or cultures.
Functionalist Approach.
Illness results to break in our social interaction both at home and at work. Functionalist perspective considered that “being sick” must be controlled so that not too many people are released from their social responsibilities at any one time. Functionalist defined illness as that which disrupts people from working in the society.
It is expected that even when one is sick, he/she is still required to take on a social role even if temporary. “Sick role” refers to the societal expectations about the attitudes and behavior of a person viewed as being ill.
The sick role for example according to Talcott Parsons (1951 , 1972, 1975) includes, being exempted from normal day-to-day responsibilities and generally do not suffer blame for their conditions. The sick is obligated to try to get well and this may include seeking competent professional care.
According to Talcot Parsons, Physicians (Medical doctors) function as “gatekeepers” for the sick role. They determine when a patient is sick or recovered. Thus, the sick person depends on the doctor because the doctor can control the valued rewards of being sick (exemption from work or school and also receiving treatment)
Conflict Approach
The conflict theorists, views the medical profession as a means of social control. They argued that, physicians have an officially approved monopoly of the right to define health and illness and to treat illness.
This perceived monopoly of the medical profession is what conflict theorists refer to as “Medicalization of Society”. This refers to the growing role of medicine as a major institution of social control.
Roles of the medical profession
1. Physicians examine a wide range of issues such as sexuality, old age, anxiety, obesity, child development, alcoholism, and drug addiction.
2. Physicians bring new cures to complex human problems and certain infectious diseases.
3. Physicians or medical experts are influential in proposing and assessing relevant public policy.
4. Medicine also serves as an agent of social control by retaining absolute jurisdiction over many health care procedures.
Interactionist Approach
When a person is sick, he/she is not simply passive, but often actively seeks the services of health care practitioners. This is the interactionist point of view.
According to this approach, patients sometimes fail to follow the physician’s advice. For example, some patients stop taking their medication, some take incorrect dosage while others never follow the prescriptions.
Such non-compliance result in increase of self-medication in our society. Many people are so accustomed to self diagnosis and self treatment.
On the hand, Patients who actively get involved in their health care sometimes have positive consequences. For example, some patients read books about how to prevent health problems, some read about health care techniques, nutritious diets, and some carefully monitor the side effects of their medication.
Labeling Approach
This approach examines why some people are considered “healthy or ill”? The labeling theorist argued that, people are often viewed by others to be “healthy or ill”.
The health care practitioners (especially physicians) have the power to define certain people as “sick”. Labels associated with illness commonly reshape how others treat us and how we see ourselves. The society often attaches serious consequences to labels that suggests less than perfect physical or mental health.
People labeled as sick often suffer from prejudice and discrimination and even social ostracism. Examples are people suffering from AIDS or Leprosy.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL AND HUMAN RESOURCES
What is meant By Development?
Development refers to the state of changing things around us to improve the way we live.
It is the process of changing and becoming larger, stronger, or more impressive, successful or advanced, or of causing somebody or something to change.
Development in a country is associated with economic growth through various economic activities such as farming, mining, manufacturing, transport, services and the welfare the people.
The transformation process associated with a country’s development may take years and are reflected in various aspect of her economic as well as human changes such changing from agriculture to industry ( e.g Malaysia) cutting down her annual birth rate ( e.g China) or becoming more and more urbanized (e.g Singapore)
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Generally speaking, all countries go through three main stages of development before a high level of economic success can be achieved.
- Subsistence economy.
This is the basic economy based on food gathering, farming, fishing or mining.
This economy involves raising enough food for her people, providing shelter, large rural population and a high birth rate, providing poor transport system, using low technology, having domestic economy without foreign trade and simple lifestyle.
- Secondary Economy: This type of economy makes use of agricultural and local raw materials to industrialize. They try to cut down import of manufactured goods and to trade with more countries worldwide.
This economy involves, increased amount of imported foodstuff, better home for her people with improved facilities, increased urban shift, lower birthrate and increased urbanization, improved transport system in land, sea and air travels, higher level of technology, greater trade with foreign countries and higher standard of living and a more affluent society.
- Highly Matured Economy. This type of economy is based on industrialization. The improved technology, with rapid economic growth and greater investment by locals as well as by foreigners helps the economy to develop. This economy is characterized by a high food intake, modern homes, a complex transport system, a high level of technology, wide range of manufactured goods and a high level of material comfort.
How to measure Development?
The development of a country may be grouped under the following types;
- Quality of Life: The quality of life is measured by looking into the level of achievement of a country in aspects of health, literacy and welfare.
Those who enjoy a high quality of life e.g
- Economic Development. The economic development is measured by using statistics known as Development indicators, Such as GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP). The GNP is the total income of a nation for a year. Also, the economic development can be measured using, the average income per person per year (per capita income), the energy consumption per person per year, the percentage employed and other material comforts.
The most reliable development indicator is the GNP per capita.
Tuesday, June 23, 2009
An industry refers to the activity that many people are involved in especially for commercial purpose.
It is an organized economic activity connected with the production, manufacture, rending of services or construction of a particular product or range of products.
Manufacturing Industry refers only to those activities which change the state (conditions) of raw materials into something more useful and valuable.
Many of the things people use are made by their hands or machines from shops or factories. Foodstuffs such as bread, noodles, and sauce bottled drinks canned food are all from the manufacturing industry. Products such as household goods e.g crockery, utensils, plastic containers, garments, paints, cements, fertilizers and insecticides are manufactured from factories. Also modern living is made possible by factories which manufacture electrical appliances such as fans, radios, television, and refrigerators, telephones computers e.t.c.
Classification of industry.
There are three main categories- Primary, Secondary and tertiary.
1. Primary industry: These are industries that deal with the extraction of natural resources from the earth.
Examples are: Farming, lumbering, fishing and mining.
2. Secondary Industry: These are the processing industry which changes the state of the raw materials for example oil palm fruit into Palm oil. Also, the manufacturing industry which assembles the parts of different raw materials into a new product. Example is the making of wrist watches from several tiny metals by skilled craftsmen.
Examples are textiles, engineering, chemicals, transport vehicles etc.
3. Tertiary Industry: This is the service industry. They render services in exchange for cash and not the production of goods. Examples are. Trading, tourism, Transport and banking.
Factors required for manufacturing Industry.
1. Decision: To venture into the trade, decision must be taken. Family members, friends, experts and other businessmen who have the knowledge and experience in the industry can be consulted.
2. Capital: This is needed to commence the business. One has to make estimate of how much money is needed to run a factory.
3. Site: A suitable site or location for the factory needs to b e considered. Either to site the factory in government industrial areas or in the suburbs.
4. Machinery: Once a factory is established, one will have to order the various machinery to make the products. These machines may be made locally or imported.
5. Workers; These are needed to run the machines, manufacture the various products in the factory
6. Electricity: This is needed to drive the machines and to run the factory and the office.
7. Raw materials: A wide range of raw materials is required for the manufacture of products.
8. Transport: Lorries need to be hired, to bring in the raw materials, and to distribute the finished products to the buyers and importers.
9. Net Profit: This is derived after paying all the expenses involved in the inputs.
10. Ploughed back: Whatever earnings the company makes in the manufacture of products are ploughed back into the factory to buy more raw materials, better machinery and for further extension of the factory building.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE LOCATION OF INDUSTRY
1. Maximization of Profit: Businessmen seek to locate their industry in areas where they have access to maximum advantages and minimum disadvantage.
2. Proximity to market: This is of prime importance in other to reduce cost of transportation. Also proximity to raw materials is also important.
3. Availability of raw materials: Raw materials come from many sources, thus, plants and factories are often located near ready source of raw materials.
4. Fuel and power: In the past, wood or Charcoal has been the source of power to many factories. Nowadays, electricity transmitted from hydro power stations or generated in thermal plants is most common form of energy used everywhere.
5. Human resources: Human resources may be divided into three aspects, management staff, Labour supply, and technology and Research. This three factors are essential for an industrial undertaking to be sucessful.
6. Transport: Transport is required in carrying raw materials to the industrial plants and to distribute the finished products to local consumers as well as to export destinations.
7. Market: Industries that are likely to be located near markets include, Perishable goods, fragile products, Bulky goods, labour intensive industries and industries that involve much personal contact with customers.
8. Capital: A lot of capital is needed to set up any industry. Constructing or rental of buildings, buying raw materials, ordering machinery and transport vehicles. Money is also needed for the payment of loans, expenses involved in promotion, advertising, and welfare of the workers.
9. Government Policies: The government plays a key role in deciding the growth, nature and location of industries. The cutting down of import of manufactured goods and earning foreign exchange from the export of manufactured goods are some ways governement encourage localization of industries.
10. Other factors: These are less important factors but may be decisive in application to some particular industries. They include, availability of Land, Political stability, Historical factors, climate and water supply.
Click here for Tourism Industry
Monday, June 22, 2009
1= T
2= T
3= F
4= T
5= F
6= F
7= C
8= C
9= C
10= D
11= B
12 = A
13 = C
14= A
15= A
16 = A
17= B
18 = C
19 = B
20 = A
21 = D
22 = A
23 = E
24 = C
25 = B
Given below are illocutionary acts, and for each four suggested felicity conditions. In each case only two of the felicity conditions are actually correct. Indicate the correct felicity conditions by cycling your choices.
1 = A and C
2 =A and D
3 = B and C
4 = B and C
5 = B and D
Click Here to return to Section 1
1. Enumerate 5 uses of English Language in
In
1. Global Integration
2. Travel, tourism and cultural exchange
3. Economic and business relations
4. Job and employment opportunities
5. Information Exchange and Communication
6. Educational Purposes
7. Research and Project Implementations
2. What do you understand as Morphemes?
These are the most basic units of meaning in a language. A word (e.g book) is a morpheme because it conveys a single unit of meaning (a set of bound pages). However, s at the end of a noun is also a morpheme because it conveys the meaning that there are more than one. Thus, the word books contain two morphemes, book and s.
3. Enumerate 5 characteristics of a good Language learner.
1 They have a positive attitude about the language they want to learn and about speakers of that language.
2 They have a strong personal motivation to learn the language.
3 They are confident that they will be successful learners.
4 They are prepared to risk making mistakes and they learn from the mistakes that they make.
5 They like to 1earn about the language.
6 They organize their own practice of the language.
7 They find ways to say things that they do not know how to express correctly.
8 They get into situations where the language is being used and they use the language as often as they can.
9 They work directly in the language rather than translate from their first language.
10 They think about their strategies for learning and remembering. And they consciously try out new strategies.
4. State 5 basic Principles of teaching and learning
1. Learning is more important than teaching
2. Teach the students not the book
3. Involve the students in the learning process
4. Don't tell students what they can tell you
5. Show your reaction to what students say
6. Students need practice not you
7. Don’t Emphasize Difficulties.
8. Vary what you do and how you do it.
9. Select
10. Activities and relationships in the classroom Change
11. Students need to Learn How to learn
12. Useful and fun is better than either alone
5. Mention 5 qualities of a good language teacher
I He makes his course interesting.
2 He teaches good pronunciation.
3 He explains clearly.
4 He speaks good English.
5 He shows the same interest in all his students.
6 He makes all the students participate.
7 He shows great patience.
8 He insists on the spoken language.
9 He makes his pupils work.
10 He uses an audio-lingual method.
There are several kinds of Antonyms. By writing C, G or R in Column C, indicate whether the pairs in column A and B are complementary, gradable or relational.
1= C
2= C
3= R
4= C
5 = C
6 = C
7 = C
8= G
9 = C
10 = G
11 = G
12 = G
13 = C
14 = R
15 = C
Answer to Section 6 Click Here
SECTION 3.
1. C
2. B
3. D
4. C
5. D
6. D
7. A
8. D
9. C
10. D
11. D
12. C
13. B
14. A
15. D
Answer to SECTION 4 Click here
1. Explain with Examples the term “Hedges”
Sometimes what we are saying may not be totally accurate. Hedges are used to show that the speaker is cautious of what they say and helps to maintain Quantity, Quality, Relation and Manner.
2. Underline the Hedges in the following sentences and indicate which cooperative principles it tries to maintain.
a. The teacher is not married, I guess. Quality
b. I don't know if this is important, but some of the files are missing Relation
c. I'm not sure if this makes sense, but car had no lights. Manner
d. I won't bore you with all the details, but it was an exciting trip Quantity
e. This may be a bit confused, but I remember being in a car Manner
f. I may be mistaken, but I saw a wedding ring on her finger. Quality
g. This may sound like a dumb question, but whose handwriting is? Relation
h. As you probably know, I am terrified of bugs. Quantity
3. What is the relationship between Cooperation and Implicature
When speakers and listeners are involved in conversation, they are generally cooperating with each other. For example, speakers use references to make listeners to understand them, while listeners use inference to understand the speaker.
The ability for speakers to communicate by providing additional conveyed meaning is called Implicature. It is through these Implicatures that listeners are able to understand the intended meaning of speakers. Implicatures help listeners to interpret the intended meaning of the speakers.
4. Explain in details the relationship between Speech act and Speech Events.
When people speak, they do not just use grammatical structures or words but rather, they perform actions with their utterances (sound or words). Speech act refers to the action performed through utterances.
Speech events on the other hand, refer to the circumstances surrounding the utterances which may include other utterances.
Therefore, the action performed (Speech Act) by an utterance depend on the circumstances (Speech Event) of the utterance and the Circumstance determines the Action Performed by the utterance.
5. Do you agree or disagree that Animals have a language? Give reasons to support your answers.
It is evident that animals just like humans can communicate with each other. However, the question of whether animals have a language is contentious. Human beings are the only species capable of learning language.
This is because Humans can think and talk about things that happened in the past, present and even in the future. Human beings can talk about things that are near or far, they can talk about things which are seen or unseen as well as things from their imaginations.
Animals do not posses such characteristics in their communication.
6. What is Cohesion? Give Reasons why Cohesion is important element of Discourse Analysis.
Cohesion is an important element of written text and spoken data. Cohesion refers to how the information contained in the text links together. For Texts to be understandable by readers, the writer should ensure that the information is Cohesive. Cohesion helps the texts to have meaning.
7. What is the difference between Reference and Inference?
Reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something.
Inference on the other hand refers to the reasoning which listeners/readers use to make logical judgment from circumstantial evidence rather than from observation. Inference helps to clarify references.
8. What is the difference between Morphemes and Semantics?
These are the most basic units of meaning in a language. A word (e.g book) is a morpheme because it conveys a single unit of meaning (a set of bound pages). However, s at the end of a noun is also a morpheme because it conveys the meaning that there are more than one. Thus, the word books contain two morphemes, book and s.
Semantics refers to the system of meaning of words within a context. For example, when we say "Ravy flew down the street in her new car". Flew in this sentence has a different meaning than it is used in the sentence; The Pilot flew to Toronto and back in the same day.
It is important to note that semantics and morphemes deals with meaning. However, while Semantics focuses on units of meaning associated with the relationships among words, Morphemes are units of meaning associated with the components that make up a single word.
9. Outline the Approaches of Language Acquisition
APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
There are four categorical approaches to Language acquisition.
1. Biological Basis of language acquisition
2. Cognitive Basis of Language acquisition
3. Socio cultural Basis of language acquisition
4. Behavioral and Social Learning Bases for Language Acquisition
Answer for Section 3 Click Here
1. Crying -Used to communicate with parents 1-3months
2. Babbling -sound made with the front of the mouth 3-6 months
3. Cooing -a sound that resembles real words. 6-10 months
4. Holo-phrase - one word syllables children use to make speech 10-15months
5. Telegraphic - use two or three word phrases 18-24months
6. Middle Age - they begin to add clauses and compound sentences 5-7Years
7. Adolescence -The competence for written languages is higher than spoken
language 13-17 years
Answer for Section 2 Click Here
PART ONE
TRUE OR FALSE
1. T
2. F
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. F
7. F
8. F
9. T
10. T
11. T
12. T
13. T
14. F
15. C
16. A
17. Phonemes
18. Morphemes
19. Language acquisition
20. Pragmatics
KEY STAGES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Monday, June 15, 2009
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Sunday, June 14, 2009
Discover the power of the mind! You can earn a lot if only you have the will power.
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Friday, June 12, 2009
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND LANGUAGES:
• Undergraduate Programs:
a. Teaching skills
b. Professional Communication skills.
DEGREES TO BE AWARDED
SINGLE HONORS
• Bachelor of Arts ( English literature)
• Bachelor of Arts (Tesol or Teaching Skills)
• Bachelor of Arts ( Professional Communication Skills)
DOUBLE HONORS
• Bachelor of Applied Arts( Teaching skills and professional communication)
Bachelor of Arts (Tesol or Teaching Skills)
• HRU's Tesol program can provide you with the background and skills you need to advance in your career choice or to continue with graduate studies.
• A Bachelor of Arts degree in Humanities-English provides you with a liberal arts education that can be valuable in a wide range of career fields in
• Educational institutions
• Advertising agencies
• Radio and TV broadcasting,
• Public relations firms,
• Business and nonprofit organizations,
• Government agencies,
• Professional associations.
As a writer, you might write for book publishers, magazines, trade journals, newspapers, technical reports, online sites, company newsletters, radio and TV broadcasts, movies and advertisements. Common positions include news writer, journalist, technical writer and copywriter.
• As an editor, you might select and prepare material for publication or broadcast. You might also review, rewrite and edit a writer's work. Common positions include executive editor, managing editor, assistant editor, copy editor, book production editor and publication assistant.
Curriculum
• This program is a two semester course for students who have completed the three year English program. The subjects for the Bachelor of Arts in TESOL are as follows.
• Foundation of Education
• Teaching Methodology
• Applied Linguistics
• Teaching Practice (Practicum)
• Foundation of Education: This course deals with the theories and principles of Education and teaching Profession.
Students will be able to learn about the Historical development of Education and well as the philosophies of education.
• Teaching Methodology:
This course deals with the methods for teaching. Students will be able to learn about the pedagogy of teaching.
Students will also learn about how to be good and effective teachers.
• Applied Linguistics:
The underlying objective of the Applied Linguistics (AL) course is to provide supportive and complimentary materials for the Teaching Methodology (Meth) Course. Students will be able to learn how to learn and use the language in solving real life problems.
• Teaching Practice: (practicum)
This course is to expose students to real classroom situation. They will be able to apply the knowledge obtained from the FE, AL and TM courses.
This course will provide students with opportunity to deal with problems that may arise from teaching process.
Bachelor of Arts ( Professional Communication Skills)
• Degree Plan
• What Can I Do With This Degree?
• The Communication program at the Human Resources University can:
• Increase your understanding of the human communication process.
• Teach you skills for becoming a more effective communicator.
• Help you improve communication for individuals and society.
• HRU's Communication program can provide you with the background and skills you need to advance in your career choice or to continue with graduate studies.
• The increasing use of computer technologies is creating a greater demand for people with writing, speaking, desktop publishing and intercultural communication skills.
• In addition, the public relations field is ranked as one of the top 10 industries with the fastest wage and salary employment growth predicted over the next decade.
• No matter the profession you choose, the ability to communicate will be a skill highly valued by an employer.
• Communication graduates can be found in a variety of occupations such as
• speech writer,
• journalist,
• community affairs liaison,
• lobbyist,
• recruiter,
• personnel director
• public relations specialist
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
• Educational institutions
• Advertising agencies
• Radio and TV broadcasting,
• Public relations firms,
• Business and nonprofit organizations,
• Government agencies,
• Professional associations.
• The HRU program also provides a background for those who plan to go on for graduate training in the field (Masters or PHD). In addition, you have the opportunity to get work experience in the field with an internship.
• At HRU, you can design a program that best fits your career and educational goals. You have the option of a Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Arts degree in Professional Communication.
• You can also select Communication as a concentration in the Bachelor of Applied Arts & Sciences degree program. If you are considering an advanced degree, the Master of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies offers Communication as a concentration.
Curriculum
• This program is a two semester course for students who have completed the three year English program. The subjects for the Bachelor of Arts in Professional Communication are as follows.
1. Business Communication
2. Advanced English Structure
3. Communicative Writing
4. Advanced English Proficiency
5. Intercultural Communication
• Business communication:
This course will help students to earn great income as and Office Administrator. They will learn to prepare for work for private companies, government agencies and public or private corporations.
Students will be taught through easy-to-understand lessons that guide them step by step. They will learn how to use the language to manage the work flow and supervise the people in almost any office. They‘ll be ready to work as an Office Manager, Administrative Assistant or Executive Administrative Assistant
• Students will be able to learn about, office procedures, file and record management, interpersonal relations, using resources and references, spoken and written communication
• Advance English Structure
• This course includes comprehensive lessons, with vocabulary, grammar, culture, clear and simple explanations, practice exercises, and virtual immersion activities designed to help students bring their new language to life. Each lesson includes:
• • 2 Dialogues that you can hear at both Conversational and Pronunciation
• Speeds
• 2 Vocabulary Building Sections with full audio support
• Clear grammar notes with simple explanations and examples that you can listen to
• Vocabulary building and grammar review exercises
• Real-life and internet-based immersion activities for additional practice
• Culture notes with useful information, tips, additional vocabulary, and more
• A comprehensive Grammar Summary, including verb conjugation charts and pronunciation tips.
• Communicative writing
This course instructs students in written communication and interactive writing skills for media studies. Students will learn about
1. Planning academic research projects. Choosing an essay topic. Developing a research question.
2. Finding the evidence. Facts, inferences, and value judgments. Reading critically and taking notes. Citations and documentation.
3. Writing research summaries.
4. Refining the thesis statement and completing the research process.
5. Essay structures. Outlining. Writing the rough draft. Format and documentation.
6.Revising, editing, and rewriting.
7. Principles of workplace writing.
8. Writing routine and direct messages. Letter, memo, and email formats.
9. Writing indirect and persuasive messages.
10. Principles of professional presentations (oral and webpage).
• Advance English Proficiency
• This course is the fourth in a series of leveled listening and speaking, reading and writing courses, this course instructs students in aural comprehension, pronunciation, idiomatic expression, conversational strategies, and oral proficiency necessary for fluency at the advanced level.
By the completion of this course, students will be able to:
A. Comprehend, recall, and record new information delivered orally in various contexts.
B. Demonstrate clear pronunciation and adequate speed of speech appropriate to the high-intermediate level of English fluency.
C. Demonstrate awareness of vocabulary unique to academic and professional realms by choosing language appropriate to context.
D. Employ strategies such as clarification, explanation, and restatement of information to facilitate discussion in a group.
E. Demonstrate critical thinking in discussion based on listening activities.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
• This course is about communication within different cultures (i. e. cross-cultural) and communication between different cultures (i. e. intercultural). Students will become attuned to the values, beliefs, and assumptions they hold generally and about communication specifically as they interact with people unlike themselves.
• The course combines theory and research from a communication perspective and a humanistic worldview. The course will involve the application of communication concepts through activities, simulations, reflection blog on the internet, group discussions and group projects/presentations.
• This course seeks to develop students’ cultural awareness and investigates the role that culture and worldview play in intercultural communication.
• This course seeks to develop students’ cultural awareness and investigates the role that culture and worldview play in intercultural communication.
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Thursday, June 11, 2009
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Wednesday, June 10, 2009
Elements of a research proposal and report
All research reports use roughly the same format. It doesn't matter whether you've done a customer satisfaction survey, an employee opinion survey, a health care survey, or a marketing research survey. All have the same basic structure and format. The rationale is that readers of research reports (i.e., decision makers, funders, etc.) will know exactly where to find the information they are looking for, regardless of the individual report.Once you've learned the basic rules for research proposal and report writing, you can apply them to any research discipline. The same rules apply to writing a proposal, a thesis, a dissertation, or any business research report.
General considerations
Research papers usually have five chapters with well-established sections in each chapter. Readers of the paper will be looking for these chapters and sections so you should not deviate from the standard format unless you are specifically requested to do so by the research sponsor.
Most research studies begin with a written proposal. Again, nearly all proposals follow the same format. In fact, the proposal is identical to the first three chapters of the final paper except that it's writtten in future tense. In the proposal, you might say something like "the researchers will secure the sample from ...", while in the final paper, it would be changed to "the researchers secured the sample from ...". Once again, with the exception of tense, the proposal becomes the first three chapters of the final research paper.
The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called "APA" and the rules are described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Any library or bookstore will have it readily available. The style guide contains hundreds of rules for grammar, layout, and syntax. This paper will cover the most important ones.
Avoid the use of first person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in third person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...", say something like "The researcher will ..." or "The research team will ...".
A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough) copy of your proposal, thesis, dissertation, or research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks like a draft, will interpreted as such, and you can expect extensive and liberal modifications. Take the time to put your paper in perfect APA format before showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it will then be perceived as a final paper, and there will be far fewer changes.
Style, layout, and page formatting
Title page
All text on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no page number and it is not counted in any page numbering.
Page layout
Left margin: 1½"Right margin: 1"Top margin: 1"Bottom margin: 1"
Page numbering
Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1" of white space from the top of the page number to the top of the paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the first page of Chapter 1 (although a page number is not placed on page 1).
Spacing and justification
All pages are single sided. Text is double-spaced, except for long quotations and the bibliography (which are single-spaced). There is one blank line between a section heading and the text that follows it. Do not right-justify text. Use ragged-right.
Font face and size
Any easily readable font is acceptable. The font should be 10 points or larger. Generally, the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except 1) tables and graphs may use a different font, and 2) chapter titles and section headings may use a different font.
References
APA format should be used to cite references within the paper. If you name the author in your sentence, then follow the authors name with the year in parentheses. For example:Jones (2004) found that... If you do not include the authors name as part of the text, then both the author's name and year are enclosed in parentheses. For example: One researcher (Jones, 2004) found that...A complete bibliography is attached at the end of the paper. It is double spaced except single-spacing is used for a multiple-line reference. The first line of each reference is indented.
Examples: Bradburn, N. M., & Mason, W. M. (1964). The effect of question order on response. Journal of Marketing Research 1 (4), 57-61. Bradburn, N. M., & Miles, C. (1979). Vague quantifiers. Public Opinion Quarterly 43 (1), 92-101.
Outline of chapters and sections
TITLE
PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I - Introduction Introductory paragraphs Statement of the problem Purpose Significance of the study Research questions and/or hypotheses
CHAPTER II - Background Literature review Definition of terms
CHAPTER III - Methodology Restate purpose and research questions or null hypotheses Population and sampling Instrumentation (include copy in appendix) Procedure and time frame Analysis plan (state critical alpha level and type of statistical tests) Validity and reliability Assumptions Scope and limitations
CHAPTER IV - Results
CHAPTER V - Conclusions and recommendations Summary (of what you did and found) Discussion (explanation of findings - why do you think you found what you did?) Recommendations (based on your findings)
REFERENCES APPENDIX
Top
Chapter I - Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
Chapter I begins with a few short introductory paragraphs (a couple of pages at most). The primary goal of the introductory paragraphs is to catch the attention of the readers and to get them "turned on" about the subject. It sets the stage for the paper and puts your topic in perspective. The introduction often contains dramatic and general statements about the need for the study. It uses dramatic illustrations or quotes to set the tone. When writing the introduction, put yourself in your reader's position - would you continue reading?
Statement of the Problem
The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just one sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration).
You are looking for something wrong. ....or something that needs close attention ....or existing methods that no longer seem to be working.Example of a problem statement:
"The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity in middle management workers."
While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always accompanied by several paragraphs that elaborate on the problem. Present persuasive arguments why the problem is important enough to study. Include the opinions of others (politicians, futurists, other professionals). Explain how the problem relates to business, social or political trends by presenting data that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem. Try to give dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing this section, make sure you can easily identify the single sentence that is the problem statement.
Purpose
The purpose is a single statement or paragraph that explains what the study intends to accomplish. A few typical statements are:The goal of this study is to... ... overcome the difficulty with ... ... discover what ... ... understand the causes or effects of ... ... refine our current understanding of ... ... provide a new interpretation of ... ... understand what makes ___ successful or unsuccessful
Significance of the Study
This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how your study relates to the larger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your study. It makes the purpose worth pursuing. The significance of the study answers the questions: Why is your study important? To whom is it important? What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses and/or Null Hypotheses
Chapter I lists the research questions (although it is equally acceptable to present the hypotheses or null hypotheses). No elaboration is included in this section. An example would be:The research questions for this study will be: 1. What are the attitudes of... 2. Is there a significant difference between... 3. Is there a significant relationship between...
Chapter II - Background
Chapter II is a review of the literature. It is important because it shows what previous researchers have discovered. It is usually quite long and primarily depends upon how much research has previously been done in the area you are planning to investigate. If you are planning to explore a relatively new area, the literature review should cite similar areas of study or studies that lead up to the current research. Never say that your area is so new that no research exists. It is one of the key elements that proposal readers look at when deciding whether or not to approve a proposal.Chapter II should also contain a definition of terms section when appropriate. Include it if your paper uses special terms that are unique to your field of inquiry or that might not be understood by the general reader. "Operational definitions" (definitions that you have formulated for the study) should also be included. An example of an operational definition is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as posttest score minus pretest score".
Chapter III - Methodology
The methodology section describes your basic research plan. It usually begins with a few short introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and research questions. The phraseology should be identical to that used in Chapter I. Keep the wording of your research questions consistent throughout the document.
Population and sampling
The basic research paradigm is:
1) Define the population
2) Draw a representative sample from the population
3) Do the research on the sample
4) Infer your results from the sample back to the populationAs you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an accurate description of the population. When you've finished your research and you make statements based on the results, who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the population. Examples are: "The population for this study is defined as all adult customers who make a purchase in our stores during the sampling time frame", or "...all home owners in the city of Minneapolis", or "...all potential consumers of our product".While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling methods from which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how you will select the sample. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don't omit any details. This is extremely important because the reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the population.
Instrumentation
If you are using a survey that was designed by someone else, state the source of the survey. Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is attempting to measure. Include a copy of the actual survey in the appendix and state that a copy of the survey is in the appendix.
Procedure and time frame
State exactly when the research will begin and when it will end. Describe any special procedures that will be followed (e.g., instructions that will be read to participants, presentation of an informed consent form, etc.).
Analysis plan
The analysis plan should be described in detail. Each research question will usually require its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be addressed one at a time followed by a description of the type of statistical tests that will be performed to answer that research question. Be specific. State what variables will be included in the analyses and identify the dependent and independent variables if such a relationship exists. Decision making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level) should also be stated, as well as the computer software that will be used.
Validity and reliability
If the survey you're using was designed by someone else, then describe the previous validity and reliability assessments. When using an existing instrument, you'll want to perform the same reliability measurement as the author of the instrument. If you've developed your own survey, then you must describe the steps you took to assess its validity and a description of how you will measure its reliability.Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement. Are we measuring what we think we are? There are no statistical tests to measure validity. All assessments of validity are subjective opinions based on the judgment of the researcher. Nevertheless, there are at least three types of validity that should be addressed and you should state what steps you took to assess validity.Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood or misinterpreted. Pretesting a survey is a good way to increase the likelihood of face validity. One method of establishing face validity is described here. How to make sure your survey is valid.Content validity refers to whether an instrument provides adequate coverage of a topic. Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretest open-ended questions help to establish content validity.Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a particular scale or measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or constructs that explain a phenomena. In other words, if you are using several survey items to measure a more global construct (e.g., a subscale of a survey), then you should describe why you believe the items comprise a construct. If a construct has been identified by previous researchers, then describe the criteria they used to validate the construct. A technique known as confirmatory factor analysis is often used to explore how individual survey items contribute to an overall construct measurement.Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measurement that yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to random error, it lacks reliability.There are three basic methods to test reliability : test-retest, equivalent form, and internal consistency. Most research uses some form of internal consistency. When there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the same construct, then we would expect a large degree of coherence in the way people answer those items. Various statistical tests can measure the degree of coherence. Another way to test reliability is to ask the same question with slightly different wording in different parts of the survey. The correlation between the items is a measure of their reliability. See: How to test the reliability of a survey.
Assumptions
All research studies make assumptions. The most obvious is that the sample represents the population. Another common assumptions are that an instrument has validity and is measuring the desired constructs. Still another is that respondents will answer a survey truthfully. The important point is for the researcher to state specifically what assumptions are being made.
Scope and limitations
All research studies also have limitations and a finite scope. Limitations are often imposed by time and budget constraints. Precisely list the limitations of the study. Describe the extent to which you believe the limitations degrade the quality of the research.
Chapter IV - Results
Description of the sample
Nearly all research collects various demographic information. It is important to report the descriptive statistics of the sample because it lets the reader decide if the sample is truly representative of the population.
Analyses
The analyses section is cut and dry. It precisely follows the analysis plan laid out in Chapter III. Each research question addressed individually. For each research question: 1) Restate the research question using the exact wording as in Chapter I 2) If the research question is testable, state the null hypothesis 3) State the type of statistical test(s) performed 4) Report the statistics and conclusions, followed by any appropriate table(s)Numbers and tables are not self-evident. If you use tables or graphs, refer to them in the text and explain what they say. An example is: "Table 4 shows a strong negative relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction (r=-.72, p=.03)". All tables and figures have a number and a descriptive heading. For example:Table 4The relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction.Avoid the use of trivial tables or graphs. If a graph or table does not add new information (i.e., information not explained in the text), then don't include it.Simply present the results. Do not attempt to explain the results in this chapter.
Chapter V - Conclusions and recommendations
Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what you did and found (i.e., the conclusions from Chapter IV).
Discussion
Discuss the findings. Do your findings support existing theories? Explain why you think you found what you did. Present plausible reasons why the results might have turned out the way they did.
Recommendations
Present recommendations based on your findings. Avoid the temptation to present recommendations based on your own beliefs or biases that are not specifically supported by your data. Recommendations fall into two categories. The first is recommendations to the study sponsor. What actions do you recommend they take based upon the data. The second is recommendations to other researchers. There are almost always ways that a study could be improved or refined. What would you change if you were to do your study over again? These are the recommendations to other researchers.
References
List references in APA format alphabetically by author's last name
Appendix
Include a copy of any actual instruments. If used, include a copy of the informed consent form.
